3) The Changing Societal Context within which Physical Education is Provided

Contemporary Irish society is changing rapidly. Some commentators describe this change as a move from a 'society to an economy'. Education has responded to societal change in a variety of ways. Underpinning Irish education is competitive individualism. 'The Points Race' dominates Post Primary education, when children are encouraged to adapt their life-styles to achieve academic success.

Physical Education has the capacity to introduce children to their own limitations in a non-destructive way. The ability to play is almost lost for modern children. Sport is viewed as the preserve of the elite Sportsperson whose levels of fitness and skill are viewed as inaccessible for most people; particularly by vulnerable adolescents whose senses of self worth are often wildly inaccurate.

The type of Physical Education that we teach should reflect the society in which the students are living. Some societal factors which impact on the nature of Physical Education provision are as follows

• Poor Subject Status
  
• Points System - focus on academic subjects
  
• Overcrowded curriculum
  
• Physical Education and inclusion of all abilities
  
• Legal status of subject provision
  
• Health Trends
  
• Lower levels of Physical Activity and fitness
  
• Overemphasis on Sport development to the detriment of Physical Education development
  
• Increased spectatorship of Sport
  
• Poor resourcing
  
• PassiveTechnologies

The following sections will describe Health and Physical Activity trends which will have a significant bearing on the role and nature of Physical Education provision in the future.

3.1 Health

Physical Education is the ONLY educational experience where the focus is on body, Physical Activity and physical development. The WHO (2000) organisation has identified Physical inactivity as one of the key threats, even greater than smoking to worldwide population health.

Key facts

• Over 60% of the world population is not active (sedentary) or not active enough to gain health benefits;
  
• Physical Activity declines significantly with age during adolescence;
  
• Physical inactivity is generally higher among girls and women;
  
• The overall inactivity trend is worse in poor urban areas;
  
• Alarming trend in the reduction of Physical Education/activity programmes in and through schools;
  
• Global contradiction of positive impact of Physical Activity on health and polices on Physical Education/activity provision;

Some benefits of Physical Activity are as follows:

• Reduces the risk of dying prematurely;
  
• Reduces the risk of dying from heart disease;
  
• Reduces the risk (up to 50%) of developing heart disease, diabetes (type II), colon cancer, and lower back pain;
  
• Helps to prevent/reduce hypertension;
  
• Reduces stress, anxiety and feelings of depression and loneliness;
  
• Helps control weight;
  
• Helps build and maintain healthy bones, muscles, and joints;
  
• Helps reduce osteoporosis;
  
• Helps older adults become stronger and better able to move without falling;
  
• Enhances functional capacity and independent living;
  
• Promotes psychological well-being, better cognition, social interaction and social integration;
  
• Helps to minimise the consequences of certain disabilities and can help in the management of painful conditions;
  
• Helps control other risk behaviors, especially among children and youth (e.g. tobacco use and other substances, unhealthy diet, violence, ...);

Additional benefits more specific to women:

• the prevalence of breast cancer has been found to be lower among physically active women;
  
• regular Physical Activity, combined with adequate diet has shown to be one of the most effective means of controlling mild to moderate obesity and maintaining an ideal body weight in women;
  
• Inactive women have higher risks of developing osteoporosis than men, especially during the 10 years after menopause. Although the gradual loss of bone mineral density occurs in middle-age in both sexes, this loss accelerates in women after menopause. In a number of countries, it has been observed that a large proportion (over 2/3) of fractures due to osteoporosis, particularly hip fractures, occur in women over 50.

(Extract from WHO (2000): http://www.who.int/hpr/active/index.html)

Non-Communicable Diseases (NCD's)

The world is experiencing a transition from communicable to non-communicable diseases (NCDs). In1998 alone, NCDs contributed to almost 60% (31.7 million) of deaths in the world and 43% of the global burden of disease. Based on current trends, by 2020, NCDs will contribute to 73% deaths and 60% of the global burden of disease. The developing world is already paying a high toll to NCDs (in addition to the toll of communicable diseases): 77% of deaths attributable to NCDs in 1998 occurred in developing countries and 85% of the burden of disease they represent was borne by low and middle income countries.

In 1998, there were 16.6 million deaths from cardiovascular diseases (CVD) in the world (13 million occurred in developing countries). CVD are the major causes of death among women aged 50 years and over in developing countries (half of all deaths of women over 50 in developing countries). Hypertension alone affects 20% of the adult population worldwide. Non-insulin-Dependent Diabetes (adult diabetes/type II diabetes) that Physical Activity can contribute to prevent, accounts for up to 90% of the total cases of diabetes mellitus in the world (135 million now). A significant increase of people affected with diabetes is predicted in the urban areas of developing counties. NCDs which are emerging as major causes of deaths, morbidity and disability worldwide, share a relatively small number of common and preventable risk factors especially the lack of Physical Activity, tobacco use and unhealthy diet. It is estimated that physical inactivity is as important a risk factor for NCD's as is tobacco use. PA interacts positively with strategies to improve diet, discourage tobacco use or facilitate its cessation. PA provides a direct value and an indirect added value through its beneficial impact on behaviours related to diet and tobacco use. Actions to prevent major NCDs should therefore focus on preventing and controlling the risk factors in an integrated manner.

The world is also experiencing a demographic transition characterised particularly by an improvement in life expectancy, both for men and women, which led to an increase in the total number of older people worldwide. Today the world population amounts to around six billion people, with some 580 million aged 60 years and older. By the year 2020, this figure is expected to rise to 1 billion, 3/4 of them will be living in developing countries. Policy makers need to formulate comprehensive health and social policy measures for maintaining maximum health, activity, functional capacity and independence in later life.

At present, while populations are ageing, children and youth still constitute a large proportion of the world population. Relevant policies and programs should be developed and implemented to provide children and youth in and out of school with the required amount of Sport, Physical Education and Physical Activity necessary for their healthy growth and development.

Appropriate regular moderate Physical Activity as an accessible, simple, enjoyable and cost effective preventive "medicine" for all. Much of the health gain is obtained through appropriate physical activities that are moderate in amount and intensity, which are performed preferably for about 30 minutes on most, if not all, days of the week and which carry minimal health risk.

(Extract from WHO (2000): http://www.who.int/hpr/active/index.html)

3.2 Health and Physical Activity patterns of the Irish Population

North/South Ireland Food Consumption Survey (2001) examined habitual food and beverage consumption, lifestyle health indicators and attitudes to food and health in a representative sample (n = 1379) of the 18-64 year old adult population of the Island of Ireland during 1997-1999. This survey is extensive and is an example of quality research. The survey closely examined key risk factors for Cardiovascular disease; Physical inactivity, Diet, Smoking and excess alcohol consumption. Cardiovascular disease is the single largest cause of death in Ireland with 43% of all deaths in 1997 being attributed to the disease group. Death rates in Ireland due to Coronary Heart Disease are the highest in Europe. The key findings of the study were as follows:

A total of 42% had a normal Body Mass Index (BMI), 39% were overweight and 18% were obese. In 1990 the prevalence of obesity was 11%, a 67% increase occurred in the intervening years to 2001. The study also indicated that television viewing accounted for 19.1 hr/wk and 18.3 hr/wk for males and females respectively, vigorous exercise only accounted for 1.7 hours/wk and 1.0 hrs/wk for males and females respectively. Obesity is linked with the increased risk of a number of diseases, including cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes (type II), gall bladder disease, bone joint disorders and certain cancers; overweight is linked with an increased risk of type II diabetes. A very important conclusion from this study is that dietary patterns have not significantly changed in the Irish population and that the primary cause of the increase in obesity is physical inactivity.

Eighty percent of respondents (81% of men and 79% of women) were alcohol consumers. Younger adults were more likely to consume alcohol than older adults. Thirty six percent of men and 20% of women consumed levels of alcohol, which exceeded the recommended maximum intake of 21 units for men and 14 units for women.

Mean daily fat intake was higher and carbohydrate intakes were lower than current dietary recommendation. Mean dietary fibre intake was below the minimum recommendation in almost half of women and a quarter of men. Intake of most vitamins was adequate. Intakes of calcium in women and folate and iron in women of reproductive age were inadequate. Intakes of vitamin D were also inadequate.

Levels of Physical Activity were low. Men were significantly more active than females. There was a significant decrement in levels of activity with age. Reported participation in vigorous Physical Activity was low ranging from 1.7 hours per week for men and one hour for women. Current American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) guidelines recommend at least 5 bouts of 30 minutes of moderate/vigorous Physical Activity each week to maintain or enhance levels of health i.e. 2.5 hours per week, the mean value describe for the Irish was 1.3 hours of vigorous activity per week, this is significantly below the ACSM guideline. It is doubtful that the hours spent in recreational activity described in the North/South study (6.7 hrs/wk) is of sufficient intensity for the enhancement of health. However it may maintain levels of health in some individuals. An important finding regarding Physical Activity was the large amount of time spent viewing Television; mean viewing time for all was 18.7 hours per week. This clearly reduces possible time available for participation in health enhancing Physical Activity.

A third of men and women were current smokers, and a quarter smoked daily. The smoking habit was more prevalent 18-35 year olds (41 % of men and 42% of women) than 51-64 year olds (27% of men and 17% of women). Smoking is associated with 21% of total deaths.

Research evidence on a randomly selected sample (n = 544) of Limerick adolescents (14-17 years) indicated that 46% of the population were not behaviourally disposed to participating in Physical Activity and may only do so through the process of education. 11% only started regular exercise in the last 6 months, 13% had relapsed from regular exercise and 29% have been exercising regularly for more than 6 months (Shiely, Sohun & Mac Donncha, 2001). For the above findings regular exercise is defined as 3 or more times per week for 20 minutes or more on each occasion. If all children are to experience the benefits of participation in Physical Activity they must become involved in an educational process, which commences at a very young age and continues through Primary and post-Primary education and then throughout life. Quality Physical Education is a life long process and should not be confined to the school curriculum.

In a sub sample (n=290, Males = 157, age 15.4 ± 1.1 Females = 133. age 15.1 ± 1.0) levels of Physical Activity were examined in more detail. Participants were randomly selected from six schools and ranged in age from 14-17years.

76% of males and 71% of females reported that they did not smoke. 26.3% of all adolescents smoked and 15.5% of these smoked more than 5 cigarettes each day. 25.5% of adolescents reported drinking alcohol on a weekly basis. All adolescents reported that they watch television daily, 41.3% of males and 50.4% of females watch between 2-3 hours television each day. 26.2% watch more than 3 hours each day. Males spent more time playing computer games than females, 13.3% of males spent between 7-10 hours and over playing computers. The favourite leisure reported by 40.3% of male adolescents was 'playing Sport or being physically active' , while 'chatting with friends' was the preference of 47% of females. 42% of adolescents were engaged in part-time employment of up to 6 hours per week, this statistic may indicate that part-time work is an additional factor which prevents individuals participating in appropriate amounts of Physical Activity. The majority of adolescents (88%) perceived 'having friends' as the most important positive lifestyle factor. The majority of females did not perceive exercise as an important lifestyle factor.

47% of adolescents (40% of males and 54% of females) spent less than or equal to 1 hour in 'moderate to vigorous' Physical Activity on a typical school day. Based on this evidence and the evidence regarding the behavioural disposition of the pupils (Shiely, Sohun & Mac Donncha, 2001) it can be concluded that almost 50% of the adolescent population in Limerick are not participating in appropriate amounts of Physical Activity to enhance or maintain current levels of health. It must be noted that the use of questionnaire based method of calculating Physical Activity levels are prone to overestimation, therefore results may present a best-case scenario. Armstrong (2002) using heart rate monitoring procedures to assess levels of Physical Activity found that questionnaire based assessment procedures can dramatically overestimate levels of activity.

The National Health and Lifestyles Survey (1999) examined Physical Activity patterns of adults and children in Ireland. 6,539 adults aged 18+ and 8,497 children aged between 9-17 were surveyed. 42% of adults engaged in some form of Physical Activity (3 times/wk). 24% reported doing mild forms of Physical Activity 4 times/wk, 31% did moderate forms of Physical Activity 3 times/wk. Only 9% reported doing strenuous exercise three times/wk. 21% did not participate in Physical Activity. A very clear age effect was apparent with Physical Activity levels decreasing with age. Activity levels in children were also examined. Children were asked the frequency that they exercised that resulted in them becoming out of breath or sweating. 53% of children reported exercising four or more times each week, 6% exercise less than weekly. A significant gender difference was found, 62% of boys exercised four or more times weekly while only 45% of girls participated in similar levels of exercise. Physical Activity participation decreased dramatically with age, 63% of 9-11 yr olds, 58% of 12-14 yr olds and 40% of 15-17 year olds exercise four or more times weekly. Only 26% of 15-17 year old girls exercised 4 or more times each week, additionally 13% of 15-17 yr old girls did not participate in any form of Physical Activity.

It is important to indicate that the data collected in the National Health and Lifestyles Survey (1999) was questionnaire based, Physical Activity data based on quantitative procedures such as heart rate assessment is not available for the Irish population. The International Consensus Conference on Physical Activity Guidelines for Adolescents (Salis & Patrick , 1994) recommended that, in addition to a minimal amount of daily Physical Activity (i.e. 30 min of moderate-intensity Physical Activity), "adolescents should engage in three or more sessions per week of activities that last 20 minutes or more and that require moderate to vigorous levels of exertion". Moderate activity was defined as equivalent to brisk walking and vigorous activity was defined as equivalent to jogging. Armstrong (2002) gathered minute by minute heart rate monitoring data from 0900 to 2100 hours of 839 UK 5 to 16-year-olds over a minimum of three normal weekdays. In addition, 366 youngsters were also monitored for the same period on a Saturday. The purpose of the study was to examine how many children/adolescents engaged in three or more sessions per week of activities that last 20 minutes or more at a time and that require moderate to vigorous levels of exertion. Moderate Physical Activity (equivalent to brisk walking) was therefore defined as eliciting a heart rate ³ 140 beats·min-1 and vigorous Physical Activity (equivalent to jogging) was defined as eliciting a heart rate ³ 160 beats·min-1 .

The majority of UK Primary schoolchildren met the US National Institute of Health (NIH, 1996) recommendation of accumulating at least 30 minutes per day of moderate intensity Physical Activity. Nevertheless, it was demonstrated that at all ages more boys than girls met the NIH target and that there was a steady decline with age throughout the Primary school period. At age 10 years about 85% of boys and 72% of girls achieved the NIH target. However, during the secondary school period there was a dramatic decline in the percentage of both sexes accumulating 30 minutes of moderate intensity Physical Activity per day with less than 20% of girls and less than 30% of boys meeting the target at age 14 years.

Sustained 20 minute periods of either moderate or vigorous Physical Activity were sparse in all age groups. Eighty four percent of girls and 77% of boys did not experience a single sustained 20 minute period with their heart rate greater than 160 beats·min-1 . Less than 3% of boys were observed to experience the equivalent of a daily 20 minute period with their heart rate greater than 160 beats·min-1 . Of the 459 girls monitored for three weekdays and the 195 girls monitored on a Saturday, not a single girl experienced the equivalent of a daily 20 min period of vigorous Physical Activity. Even 10 minute periods of moderate intensity Physical Activity were rarely experienced by significant numbers of young people demonstrating that sustained periods of Physical Activity do not characterize young people's Physical Activity patterns.

It can be concluded from the various surveys that many children and adolescents seldom experience the intensity and duration of Physical Activity recommended for health-related outcomes. Regardless of how the data is collected, it appears that boys are generally more active than girls from an early age and that the activity levels of both sexes decline with age. A marked deterioration in Physical Activity is typical of both boys and girls as they move through secondary school. Additionally research indicates that questionnaire based assessment of Physical Activity can significant mask true levels of activity.